Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence

Psychology defines memory as an organism’s ability to encode, store, retain, and retrieve information that it has acquired through an interaction with its environment. This includes both the internal and the external environment. Human memory is categorized into three different types: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory is the memory utilized in the time interval of 200-500 milliseconds after something has been sensed by the individual. Some of the information that is processed in sensory memory may be transferred to short-term memory where it can be stored for a longer duration of time, from a few seconds up to a minute. However, the capacity of short-term memory is limited. Long-term memory, on the other hand, has a greater capacity for storage than sensory or short-term memory. The length of time for which information can be stored in long-term memory is also prolonged and limited only by the individual himself or herself. Different models of memory show different ways by which information reaches these three types of memory. However, there is a generally agreed upon process by which memory, in general, is formed and created. The general process by which memory is created in an individual’s mind involves three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Initially, an individual must first come into contact with something via the different sensory receptors. The sensation acquired fro the environment is then encoded by the memory system. This simply involves the transformation of the information from one form to another that is more compatible with the memory system. Information about space, time, and frequency can be processed during this stage either automatically or through effortful processing. After a specific type of information is encoded, it undergoes the next step of the process: storage. Storage involves the holding on to the encoded information. A more permanent record is created and kept in one of the three classifications of memory, depending on whichever is more applicable to the type of information that is being processed. After memory is stored, it is now made available to the third step called retrieval. Retrieval is simply the act of taking the memory out of its storage in order to use it for a specific function as deemed necessary by the individual. Retrieval may involve the reversal of the encoding process. This means that the stored information may be transformed back into a sensory form. The encoding of memory can be enhanced through a variety of techniques. One such technique involves the assignment of meaning to the perceived object. Likewise, encoding may be impeded if the object sensed is ambiguous or unclear in nature. Encoding is also more effective when more senses are used. The greater amount of sensory information a memory has linked to it, the more meaningful its encoding. The storage of memory also encounters impediments. One of the greatest impediments is decay,which involves the loss or fading of memories through time. Interference is another impediment to the storage of memory, both in short-term and long-term. This simply pertains to the fact that the presence of some information prevents other information to be stored. In proactive interference, storage of previously acquired information disrupts the storage of newly acquired information. Retroactive interference, on the other hand, involves the disruption of storage of old memories due to the storage of new memories. Time must be given for the consolidation of memory into long-term memory before allowing other information to be stored. Interference and decay effects can also be lessened through constant practice of memory enhancing strategies such as repetition of the information. This is also called maintenance rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal can also enhance storage in that it links the given memory to other stored memories. Retrieval is also made easier with a greater amount of links with the memory to be retrieved to other memories. This allows for more memory cues to be used in order to reach that piece of information. Thus retrieval can be enhanced with the use of priming, mnemonic strategies, and retrieval practice. Retrieval is easier when in the form of recognition as opposed to recall. This is because recognition makes use of the information itself as the retrieval cue. Decay in long-term memory is simply the decay of the link of the stored information and the retrieval cue. This decay is one of the causes for forgetting. Information that never reaches the long-term memory is also forgotten easily as a result of the limited duration and capacity of both sensory and short-term memory. Faulty encoding and storage in long-term memory may also lead to forgetting. Also, faulty retrieval cues might lead to an inability to access data that is there but not actually linked to the â€Å"search words† used to reach it. Other reasons for an inability to remember a piece of information may be distraction, wherein the individual’s attention is misdirected, and repression, wherein the motivation to retrieve the information is lacking or the system itself has closed off the memory due, for example, to trauma and the like. The act of forgetting may also by physiological and psychological in nature. This is seen in cases of dementia and amnesia. There may be defects in the memory system or in the individual’s physiological make-up and these defects are the underlying cause for the inability to recall. Memory and its counterpart, forgetting, are complex topics that involve numerous concepts and models. It is only through a clear understanding of both that one can truly achieve a more efficient memory system that is less prone to the risk of forgetting. Reference Myers, David G. (2004). Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers

Arts of the contact zone Essay

In â€Å"†Arts of the Contact Zone† Pratt gets the point across that cultures should recognize the â€Å"contact zone.† By giving examples like Poma’s writing and a homework assignment that her son had, Pratt defines the contact zone as the â€Å"meeting of cultures with asymmetric power.† (p 487) The word â€Å"cultures† refers to every type of group in my eyes, groups such as sports teams and even classrooms. A classroom can be defined as a contact zone because the Teacher and the students are the two cultures, while the power is tilted toward the teachers favor. Pratt shows one of her son’s assignments where he answered the teacher’s questions in the same sequence that they were asked, resulting in little to no freedom to students. I could relate to this because assignments my teachers have given to me are very similar. As school progressed and classes started getting harder, the classroom setting shifted from a â€Å"contact zone† to a â€Å"community.† This allows students like me to have more freedom and creativity in there assignments. Throughout the text I would define â€Å"culture† as any group of people. Before rereading the story I was able to apply culture to most parts of my life. After rereading the story with a different perspective of culture, I make it out as a more global term. Rather than thinking of individual’s lives, I thought more about civilizations. I found that along with the change of perspective comes a whole new output of the text. This is why it is important to reread the text because without doing so it would be challenging to find the meanings of all the words used. If we changed any of the meanings or views of them, it dramatically changes the points the story is trying to get across and the way the story flows.

Analysing the traditional approach to quality management

Analysing the traditional approach to quality management Quality in its simple terms mean activities designed in a manner to improve organisation and its services. Quality also means to learn what you are doing and how to do it better. It also means to find out ways you need to change for improving services to the ultimate users. Consumer–Quality–Producer Quality : From the consumer’s point of view is price. From the producer’s point is cost. But remember always the Customer’s view must reign supreme. Dimensions of quality : Products. 1} Performance : Basic operating characteristics of D a product. Example; A car : how good are the brakes, body, mileage, etc of a car. 2} Features : Any special characteristics added to the product. e.g; special interiors added in the Car. 3} Reliability : The expected time limit for the product to deliver its best. E.g; approximate mileage of the car before it needs service. 4} Durability : Will the product last long enough up to expected time limit. 5} Conformance : Does the product meets pre established standards. 6} Serviceability : How easy is to get the service repairs, speed of repairs and the cost incurred in providing service. 7} Safety : Is the product safe enough to meet all the safety requirements as prescribed. 8} Perceptions : Perceptions based on branding, advertising etc; Does the product meets the quality standard set by a particular brand name. 9} Appearance : The human senses of sight, taste and smell is met to the well established standard. Other more Dimension of Quality : Quality of design : The design of the product must be such satisfying the needs of the customers. Quality of production process : The customers needs and wants must be met by the product. Quality of conformance : All the legal requirements and the specifications are met by the product or service. Quality of customer service : Company and customer relation must be met by with highest level of accuracy. Customers must be satisfied with the services provided and m ust feel are taken care of. Organisational quality culture : One of the most important attributes towards quality is that the seriousness of the whole organisation in achieving quality. Quality management can be considered to have three main components: quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement. Quality management is focused not only on product quality, but also the means to achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control of processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality. The Traditional approach to quality management : TRADITIONAL APPROACH As defined by Fetter, and quoted in Johnson, Kast and Rosenzweig [11] as the function of ensuring the attributes of the product conform to prescribed standards and that their relationships are maintained. The emphasis laid in traditional approach was on product inspection and rejection and the most crucial decision of time for when and what to inspect and what quantity to inspect. For this purpose, the features of the product and the cost involved needed to be considered. The process of inspecting the product might have been a random selection or a 100% check. The responsibility of assuring the product quality lied with the quality control department but generally the quality managers used to report directly to production managers or the plant manager. The managers on the contrary were in immense pressure to meet the production targets and therefore many times to meet the production targets used to let go the faulty goods. This resulted in increased customer complaints or even if the customer did not complain they never came resulting in rise in warranty cost. The managers were generally tolerant of high work scrap levels and rework inefficiencies.

News article that is relevant to one of our human resource management

News that is relevant to one of our human resource management topics - Article Example Likewise, it was also stressed that through the provision of needed education and information on maintaining health and safety to employers; in conjunction with routine visits to ensure that organizations adhere to the proposed standards and regulations, the overall state of safety has significantly improved. However, Morrison (2014) also asserted that budgetary cuts allegedly threaten the continued exemplary performance of OSHA. As noted from the recent disagreements in funding which resulted in temporary federal government shutdown in October 2013, OSHA’s operations were significantly affected in terms of the inability to conduct scheduled routine visits. It was revealed that â€Å"the alliances and partnerships the agency maintains require travel, and travel dollars may not be available under budget reductions† (Morrison, 2014, p. 2). In addition, another noted facet which is projected to be affected by the budget cuts is the training to consultants and compliance officers to maintain the level of professionalism and updated knowledge on adherence to health and safety in the work setting. Overall, the decline in trend for reported injuries, illnesses, and fatalities was emphasized to be a collaborative effort between OSHA and the employers, to ensure that both are committed in ensuring that the work place remains completely safe. The subject is relevant as it expounds on the topic on maintaining a safe and healthy work environment. One acknowledges that it is the obligation and responsibility of employers to ensure that the work place is completely safe; so as to prevent injuries, fatalities, and illnesses. As such, through the creation of standards, as disseminated by the OSHA, the article proved that the agency had been instrumental in improving the overall state of safety in the long run. One strongly believes that safety and security is one of the most important needs of employees that should be met to sustain motivation in the workplace. A safe and

Gun control Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Gun control - Assignment Example I feel that a more inquisitive process on the history of the buyer should be carried out to make sure that weapons do not land in the hands of malicious people. Guns are used to kill or injure people or animals. Buyers buy guns to protect themselves or threaten potential attackers (Cefrey 29). Weapons should be sold to people who live in dangerous neighborhoods or have threats from family or friends. Guns are dangerous weapons to own as they can push a mere argument, a moment of desperation or a child’s curiosity into a fatal situation. In nutshell guns cause more harm than good. The government should set very high standards for acquiring a gun. It would reduce the crime rates as research has shown that most of the shootings happening in the United States are caused by weapons being in the wrong hands. Therefore, the debate on whether having guns is good for protection or will cause more harm in the long run continues to show that guns are not the solution to protection and home

Exclusion Clauses in Business Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Exclusion Clauses in Business Contracts - Essay Example Certain warranties or guarantees may not actually be written into a contract, yet those contractual terms are implied by statute. For example, the Supply of Goods and Services Act of 1982 makes it clear that when a sale is made, there is an implied condition that the goods that have been supplied are of satisfactory quality. While most businesses are bound to the necessity of providing satisfactory quality of goods, they can protect themselves from very high levels of liability through exclusion clauses. An exclusion clause may be inserted into a contract in order to exclude one party’s liability for breach of contract or negligence . Taking into account the standard terms of a business contract, it must be noted that exclusion Clauses of the Company’s terms and conditions of sale needs to absolve it of any liability on the condition of the goods, such that it will be invalidated only if it is unreasonable. The validity of exclusion clauses has however, been upheld by the Courts in the case of dealing between businesses who are parties of equal bargaining power . Exclusion clauses have greater validity and will be enforced more strictly by the Courts in cases where ordinary consumers are involved . Filing a claim against a business, even if an exclusion clause is contained in a contract, could make it possible to invoke the provisions of the Unfair Contract Terms Act of 1977, which is only relevant in the case of ordinary customers and not for businesses.

Consumption and Saving Propensity Levels of Different Groups Essay

Consumption and Saving Propensity Levels of Different Groups - Essay Example This paper explicates on the theme of the saving and consumption inclinations of people with the goal of arriving at the rationale propagating two different theories, that explain such people behavior. With the aim of maximizing profits, it is imperative for businesses to understand the dynamics characterizing consumer trends. This has the effect of better positioning the respective products and services in the competitive market. The consumer decision making process entails understanding the factors affecting their purchasing decisions and the process as a whole. A prime factor affecting the spending power of consumers is the rate and extent of saving. This fashions a principal interest for economists as the dynamics associated with savings and consumption has a correlation with overall performance of the economy; both at a national and global level. Thus, the saving and consumption inclinations of people all through the course of their lifetime form an area of fundamental study. An economy will, presumably, undergo steady growth once the people decide to spend there cash; this ascertains the circulation of currency. This aids in ensuring the vigor of the economy is maintained. This is one of the rationales backing the measures instituted to instigate expenditure by citizens of a particular nation. However, in order to proficiently perform this feat, it is obligatory to understand the logic of the factor impede consumer spending. It is within this context that numerous theories were proposed to explain this fact. ... The two age groups have a large propensity to consume in relation to other age groups. The rationale in use is that the young population is borrowing against future income while the old population is using their savings. On the other hand, the middle aged population is epitomized by a greater propensity to save and consequently a lower consumption propensity. This might crop from the fact that, they are distinguished by relative higher income levels. A vast number of theories source their existence from a conceptual setup. They are formed to demonstrate the manner in which, variables of interest should behave in the real world. At times, however, facts in the real world may vary from results sourced from the conceptual framework. According to Sheldon Dazinger et al. (1982), the lifecycle hypothesis epitomizes such theories and hypothesis. Initially, the article cites the points with which it conforms. The authors concur that consumers do not hinge their consumption and savings decisi on solely on the basis of the income levels. There are some additional factors that presume a significant role in this decision making process. These additional factors are best exemplified by future expected circumstances and past experiences, which fashion the core feature in the decision. Past experiences are lessons that consumers take heed of, while future expectations are on the basis of their respective age and consequent income levels. Dazinger et al. set out to investigate if it could be proven that the young engage in saving while the old enage in dissaving activities. The studies factored in the saving tendencies of retirees and those individuals in advanced ages

Management Affairs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Management Affairs - Essay Example Their wedding is a huge event, anything related to this event also becomes famous. Their wedding cake is no exception. As soon as the couple ‘accepts’ the offer, an agreement is made between two parties to the contract. The legally binding contract is made as soon as the acceptance of the offer is made. The offer will be accepted by Choc Delux as soon as Kim is done negotiating with the company about the cake. Everything that the company communicates to the other party (Kim and Kanye) will become part of their contract agreement. They will be bound by the English law to abide by the agreement as diligently and prudently possible. There is a slight exception about enforceability of the contract; promises made in social/casual agreements are generally not enforceable under the UK Contract Law. However, this case is not social or casual. This is a business and given the magnanimity of the event also binds the two parties in certain obligations. For instance, in general circ umstances cancelling an order such as wedding cake would not be much news. This case is different as it will be a breach of agreement since it will be a huge loss to the Choc Delux Company if they lose the spot of providing cake for the big wedding. In case Kim breaches her agreement with the company she will be liable to pay the damages (the claim) from Choc Delux. The contract also states that Choc Delux is the sole provider of the wedding cake which means that if Kim and Kanye buy other cakes for their wedding then they will be in breach of the contract and will have to pay the claim in damages to the company. In case the breach happens from the couple’s side the company will see fit as to what kind of amount it seeks in damages. If the couple agrees to pay the exact amount (or any other form of compensation that the company sees fit) then the matter will be resolved. If the couple challenges the claim then they will have to settle it among themselves through

COMMENT PAPER Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

COMMENT PAPER - Essay Example (Article 5. 1.a drafted by Dr. F. V. Garcà ­a Amador, Special Rapporteur, and submitted to the International Law Commission. International Responsibility: Second Report 1957 cited in Friedmann, et.al., 760) It goes to say that Allan, even if he is not a national, will be allowed certain basic rights such as making contracts and closing deals. Since it was also mentioned that the State of Lunacy will not tolerate any discrimination in contracting, it is the State’s obligation to render necessary actions to Charlie Company, which they did—revoking Charlie Company’s charter. Therefore, if the Unites States would charge the State of Lunacy in behalf of Allan, the State would not be held liable for Charlie Company’s discrimination because they had already applied the necessary action. b. According to Lunatic law any person seeking redress against a business incorporated under state law is allowed to sue in their courts. Not giving Allan the right to sue because of the sole reason that he is an â€Å"alien† is a violation of the State of Lunacy’s Law. The Clerk would have to face the consequences of his/her judgments against Allan as an answer to the violation. When states fail to adhere to the international standard, a denial of justice may occur. Denial of justice holds states responsible under international law for wrongful administration of justice regarding foreigners committed by the executive, legislative or judicial organs of the State. It includes improper administration of civil and criminal justice with regard to foreign persons, such as denial of access to courts, inadequate procedures, and unjust decisions. (Paulsson, Jan, Denial of Justice in International Law) If not given proper action by the State of Lunacy, the United States could i nclude this situation to their charges against the State in which they will be held liable. c. The State of Lunacy will be not held liable even though Allan is an alien and is injured during

How Authentic And Religious Are Virtual Rituals Essay

How Authentic And Religious Are Virtual Rituals - Essay Example The accessibility of information online has drawn more people to virtual religious places, thus pulling them further away from offline, real-life religion. Connelly attests to this observation when he states that the lack of Buddhist teachers and learning centers, among other factors, has facilitated the growth of an online Buddhist ritual â€Å"Second Life†. Helland views a ritual as an individual or communal engagement undertaken for sacred reasons, which allows a person to have contact with the supernatural. A ritual can also be performed as a form of expressing social cohesion and preserving culture. In terms of social cohesion, Connelly states that through Second Life, feel like they belong to a community in which there are expressive involvements. The problem with online rituals as Helland states is that a person may decide to develop individual religiosity and deviate from what their traditional religious authority prescribes. These cyber rituals allow for some form of religious freedom that some strict religions are not comfortable with. According to Helland this raises the question of authenticity and authority of the people carrying out the rituals and the rituals themselves. Judging by this form of evaluation, Second Life would seem legitimate because, as Connelly states, most of the facilitators are ordained priest in real-life, who lead meditation rituals at Buddha centers.7. That aside, many questions are asked about the authenticity of the symbols found online and the sacredness of online space. The seriousness or level of religiousness of these symbols and the rituals they are used in is what bothers many religious observers. Although many people who are involved in online rituals claim that these rituals are as valid as real-life physical rituals, this issue remains to be a subject of debate. According to Connelly the symbols used in Second Life include donation boxes, statue of Buddha, incense, and meditation cushions8. These symbols, a mong others are a representation of the actual artifacts found at the Buddha Center. Virtual pilgrimages according to Helland are one of the most common points of disagreement between participants and observers9. The fact that such pilgrimages are called â€Å"virtual pilgrimages† makes observers hold the view that they are unreal. Here, it appears that observers measure the authenticity of pilgrimages using physical presence. In essence, this argument holds that a pilgrimage could only be valid if a person went physically to a place that is recognized as sacred by their religion. On the other hand, believers and practitioners of online religion believe that a spiritual journey does not have to bet physical, it can be metaphorical. For example, in addressing silent meditation in Second Life, Connelly states that while participants are meditating online, they are represented by avatars10. These avatars sit cross-legged in a room and they form a semicircle facing the statue of Buddha. Participants in Second Life even prostrate three times before entering the temple, in addition to using such words as â€Å"Namaste† at the final chime, in order to thank the facilitator. Yet, the availability of exceptionally good images and sounds that allows someone to make an electronic pilgrimage inside their head is real to those who believe. Helland states that there are those web developers who take the virtual sacred travels more real by, for example, connect with the actual places. This way, these developers can place sacred words or prayer items that can be read to the online audience during the virtual pilgrimage. In silent meditation, according to Connell

Network effect Essay Example for Free

Network effect Essay Network effect is seen as a phenomenon where a network service (SNS or PNS) becomes more valuable as the number of users increase. This phenomenon encourages continually increasing membership within the network. This can happen when a user adopts a network service initially to connect with current users, or later, when â€Å"everyone† is using the network service. Although there may be a larger increase in new membership for SNS’s, it is stated throughout the LinkedIn case that new membership for PNS’s is likely to be more valuable to users because of the nature of the connection. Many people will not want to change PNS’s because they will lose their multiple connections already created (Yoffie et al. , 2009). The case examines the likelihood of SNS’s overlapping and taking over PNS’s. This outcome seems unlikely. By examining Exhibit 6 (Yoffie et al. , 2009, p. 16), the correlation among factors such as age, income, college education, and position within an organization sets LinkedIn squarely within its target market. Also, Yoffie et al. indicates the distinct uses of professional and social apps on Facebook. The multitude of users who use social apps vs. lower use of professional apps shows that Facebook users are less likely to make their profiles into professional networking tools, leaving PNS’s like LinkedIn for leveraging their professional careers (Author, p. 14). Question #2 Emerging companies need to generate new dynamics that are modernized, innovative, and easily adaptive to survive in this world. The new dynamics should be economically viable for the industry because they affect issues of whether to pursue a build or a buy approach to expand globally. LinkedIn Corporation, a PNS, is used by professionals globally to interact professionally. Uses include recruiting, getting expert advice, group collaboration, and more. Differentiating strategies were adopted by LinkedIn in order to separate itself from competition and answer the uestion of whether to utilize a build or buy approach. A build approach involves both monetary and other resource investments from the company. For LinkedIn, Investments in certain professional apps such as conference calendar, a tool used to indicate when certain conferences will be coming up, and which of a user’s connections will be attending, are examples of utilizing the build approach. The buying approach is where the company buys/merges with an existing SNS/PNS and integrates it within the existing systems. Although this expands a company, it constrains the ability of a company to customize the existing network with its own. Therefore, a company amp; its procedures need to adapt to the technology it buys. If they use a build approach, the company can build to their own specifications differentiating itself from existing networks (No Quote, Does not answer question). Question #3 LinkedIn’s strategy is straight to the point, be the best in the market of professional networking services (PNS). By focusing on providing a â€Å"virtual platform for professional interaction† (Yoffie et al. , 2009, p. 2), LinkedIn would provide various productive services to its users. Services provided include professional search, reference checking, recruiting, advice search, job searching amp; posting, and workgroup collaboration, which were successful because they allowed their users to become more effective in their professional careers. Also, its success was accounted for being involved with countless industries, rather than focusing on a specific industry like other PNS providers. Within its strategy, LinkedIn encompassed three premises which attributed to LinkedIn being the best in PNS, â€Å"remain a strongly differentiated category from SNS,† â€Å"maintain a hold on professional users for reasons both positive and negative,† and â€Å" embrace establishments rather than fight them† (Yoffie et al. , 2009, p. 3). LinkedIn’s success strongly accounts for maintaining a quality PNS by providing a productive atmosphere, which involves being separated from SNS. It is important for LinkedIn to remain separate from SNS capabilities in order to maintain its high PNS quality and core values. The risk of inheriting this strategy’s premise involves losing the users that want a network that hosts both professional and social networking capabilities. LinkedIn could potentially lose users to SNS businesses, like Facebook, who are starting to provide PNS services in its SNS atmosphere. In the second premise for its strategy, holding its users for positive and negative reasons also brings both success and risk. The positivity hold, having users create positive professional identity, is a success because it is a competitive advantage over SNS providers who only provide social identity or cannot separate the two. But holding onto its users for negative reasons promotes the similar risk as mentioned in the first premise. When users think to switch from LinkedIn to a SNS that provides both SNS and PNS capabilities, LinkedIn banks on the fact that they believe users would not put losing its contacts in jeopardy. This negative hold on LinkedIn users is a risk because it is quite possible that sooner or later SNS companies that promote both PNS and SNS capabilities will also have relatively the same contacts as LinkedIn. It is risky to assume that LinkedIn can keep users based on the premise of this assumption. Lastly, the third premise for its strategy brings on success. Having companies embrace the concept of LinkedIn in the end creates more users. LinkedIn is designed so that professionals will be more productive and more effective in their careers. If LinkedIn does eventually provide SNS qualities in its service, this could pose as a risk. Companies might not want to promote a network that could waste work time with their employees playing games and spending time on personal social interaction on the network. Therefore, companies would end up fighting LinkedIn. LinkedIn has always incorporated a control over its network as part of its strategy. Keeping out non-professional information and photos helps keep the quality of its PNS professional and on top. It also embeds value propositions for its professional users as well as its corporate users which revolve around a simple user interface. Although this is what maintains its quality’s success, it also brings a risk by shying away companies who do not want to be part of a network that they cannot control. Lastly, LinkedIn is successful because of its strategy of how to obtain its revenues. Its five sources of revenue include advertising, subscriptions, job postings, corporate solutions, and primary research that evenly contribute to its earnings. If one of the sources does not do as well as expected, LinkedIn has the other four methods to rely on. Question #4 Companies implement strategies to achieve a target or reach a goal that may e becoming the market leader of the industry, increasing profits by a certain percent, or even attracting new members to use a professional network service. As mentioned in the second week of classes, a company may choose one of the four Porter’s generic strategies that include differentiation, overall cost leadership, focus differentiation, and focus low cost to achieve competitive advantage (Kumar, 2010, p. 24). LinkedIn’s strategy is a focus differentiation since it was first founded, and its strategy has helped the company to become a leader in the PNS market. The differentiation strategy involves constant innovation and providing users with what they need and want in a new or better manner than what competitors can provide. Therefore, LinkedIn and many companies in other industries may ward off its competitors through innovation, quality, and reputation although overlapping products may be present. While Facebook may present threats to LinkedIn with the intent to blur the distinction between SNSs and PNSs, LinkedIn would still maintain a competitive advantage in the PNSs. LinkedIn has always focused on differentiating itself in the PNSs by providing users a different degree of privacy, standards, and quality tools to â€Å"†¦find job candidates for position in their company, to reach out to experts around the world in order to get advice and  make better decisions† (Yoffie et al. , 2009, p. 4). LinkedIn differentiates from Facebook and other SNSs not only on the type of service that is provided, but also on the value it adds to the professional identity of each user, and the reputation it maintains. SNSs such as Facebook and MySpace may be very popular and well known around the world for the types of applications available, the connectivity advantages, and the numbers of users within the network. However, the SNSs have presented privacy issues as well as reputation issues. As mentioned in class by Professor Kumar and Mehdizadeh (2010) in her article, SNSs provide a self-presentation characteristic of low self-esteem and high narcissism users. Alternately, LinkedIn targets a long-term goal in the attempt to create a different type of environment, a â€Å"professional ecosystem† with the addition of applications and modules to help users increase efficiency in their work and portray the professional self. The existence or emergence of other PNSs would increase competition for LinkedIn; however, LinkedIn already has a well-established professional networks composed of top executives, CEOs/CFOs, and other important professionals that attract individuals who seek advice or just the possibility to connecting professionally. LinkedIn’s users may have difficulty and a cost to switch networks, but they also find value in the services available. The continuous promotion of the benefits that can be obtained and the innovation of new modules such as LinkedIn news and customizable settings will help the company ward off competitors. Question #5 Question # 5a The distinction between social and professional is clear. This distinction likens LinkedIn to the Wall Street Journal â„ ¢, and SNS’s to publications like Peopleâ„ ¢, indicating that creating a more social aspect to LinkedIn will depart from the needs and wants of their target market. The expansion by Facebook into an open platform allowed third parties to develop social apps and created a â€Å"viral [spread]† across the network. Hoffman (Yoffie et al. , 2009, p. 7) stated that he wanted to prevent this within the LinkedIn network, instead insisting on stringent protocols and reviews of all new apps, so as to provide professionals with â€Å". . . the right sort of tools to interact with their network. † Maintaining a walled garden, as opposed to an open platform, is critical to continuing LinkedIns success. Like stated before, its strategy is based around being the best PNS in the industry. Users flock to this website because of how LinkedIn keeps the network professional, promotes productivity, and enables users to advance their careers success. Keeping this prestige will conserve LinkedIn’s quality and continue to attract its target market, professional users. Question # 5b LinkedIn should not broaden the scope to include elements of social networking. LinkedIn began and still operates since 2003 as a PNS. This strategy has allowed it to flourish, generating a customer base of 75 million users spreading around 200 countries, which includes professionals from all fortune 500 companies (Yoffie et al. 2009). This growth can be attributed to its departure from obtaining the majority of its revenues from advertising, like SNS’s, and creating a focused concept that does not necessarily remove innovation within the network, but instead indicates a policy of professionalism throughout with the controlled inception of professional applications. Different from SNS, of which the majority of revenue is from advertising, LinkedIn has framed its revenue model on five sources: (1) Advertising, (2) Subscriptions, (3) Job Postings, (4) Corporate Solutions, and (5) Primary Research. Steve Sordello, CFO for LinkedIn, stated â€Å"This model gives us a lot of sustainability, even if one of those revenue streams doesn’t succeed as we expect, we have others† (Yoffie et al. , 2009, p. 6). In order to sustain a competitive advantage, in 2007, LinkedIn change a policy to accommodate users who wished to upload a single professional head shot for identification. In 2008, LinkedIn launched a product called Company Groups that brought all LinkedIn users who worked for an organization into a closed forum which provides a collected, protected space for employees to talk to each other, as a part of application program interfaces (API). Other launches included Conference Calendar, as stated above (Yoffie et al. , 2009). Question # 5c LinkedIn has created a successful user base in foreign countries. This growth is attributed to LinkedIn’s concept of build not buy, using an organic growth model, giving it a competitive advantage over its main foreign rival Xing. This advantage is through LinkedIn’s ability to control segments of its business outside the U. S. , separate from Xing who buys outside networks limiting its control, in addition to Nye’s observation that â€Å"being in English first† is an advantage.

Significance of the study Essay Example for Free

Significance of the study Essay Using a help desk management software leads to the increase in efficiency in operation as it allows for the solution of some of the redundant issues over call. This has the effect of reducing traveling costs and man-hour billing to field engineers as they go to customer sites. Research Question The purpose of this research is to determine whether purchasing COTS or building a service desk tracking application is best for the automation and tracking of the GovComm, Inc. Engineering Support Services’ Helpdesk. To answer this question, this research must explore: ? The entities of GovComm, Inc. Engineering Support Services’ Helpdesk ? Based on advantages and disadvantages, which qualities of each configuration best adhere to Engineering Support Services automation and asset tracking; ? If these applications fulfill stakeholders requirements Design and Methodology This research is qualitative, drawing mostly from a review of the literature on the subject of Helpdesk/support desk tracking applications and the battle of building versus buying to determine which application structure provides efficient asset tracking, failure notification, and metrics collection. GovComm, Inc.’s Engineering Support Services will be reviewed to discover details that might affect the factors that will contribute to the decision of choosing build or buy. From the review of the internal workings of GovComm, Inc. ’s Engineering Support Services a decision will be made upon comparison with the inherent nature of the two systems of implementation. Chapter 2 Literature Review Automated office systems support (AOSS) is a model made up of teams of technicians in computer who are charged with the responsibility of providing a variety of support activities in a desktop computer environment and area networks for any organization. To ensure the provision of high quality services and products, each of these teams must follow the processes, standard and procedures. A process referred to as quality assurances is used in monitoring and evaluation of the level of adherence to the procedures processes and standard in a bid to determine the potential quality that the product will attain. Therefore, QA involves review and audit of the services and activities as a means of verification of their compliance with the relevant procedures and standards so as to assure the appropriate results are seen. The question of whether to buy or build an AOSS is one of the very complex decisions that an organization has to deal with in its daily activities. It is in deed a perpetual dilemma for the organizations that are contemplating on automating their office activities. Buying implies purchasing an off-shelf Automated office systems support that are produced in mass by some software company, more often multinationals (Leopoldo, 1999). The products typically contain contents that are not unique to a particular organizations or user population needs. Moreover, it is the general trend in the software industry to create new softwares that do no conflict with the existing and thus the technology can be implemented without conflict with the existing systems. Build imply the creation of Automated office systems support from scratch (Leopoldo, 1999). Therefore, the process of building requires the determination of the organizational needs, the data and information nature and needs of the organization, design of the system an the actual implementation of the system. The process of building may and often include testing the end product to ensure that its functionality are as per the objectives that acted as the basis for its formulation (Leopoldo, 1999). A decision to buy or build a Automated office systems support may seem to be complex but in reality it can be reduced to three considerations: Resources, Needs and uniqueness. The organization must clearly determine its needs and wants before a decision is made, this may involve identification of features which are critical in meeting the organizations needs. In determination of the organizational needs they must consider the following:? Organizational objectives ? Skills ? Information needs ? Culture ? Corporate direction. Meeting all the needs is an impossible event and therefore setting priorities is inevitable. Resources Resource as a factor is one that many organizations and individual would quickly jump at an opportunity to ignore. However, examination of resources is a very important aspect to the development agenda. Moreover, many organizations make the mistake of viewing resource in the monetary dimension only. Although money as a resource is quite critical, two other pieces; time and personnel, need to be considered to complete the puzzle (Shrapre, 1999). Time When taken in the context of either building or buying a Automated office systems support, time takes the following into account: ? The time that will taken in decision making. ? The developmental time of the Automated office systems support including the time taken in testing. ? The time taken in rolling out the Automated office systems support or implement it within the organization. Analysis of organizations against the three time variables helps in the determination of the importance of time in deciding whether to buy or build.

Application of Marketing Theories to Practice

Application of Marketing Theories to Practice Introduction This report shows the different field of businesses and the methods that our company was using in SimVenture comparing with theories. Marketing and Sales Our companys main marketing tool was advertising but we were using different like direct marketing, exhibitions and our website. However, digital marketing is limited only to website in the game, although this is getting more popular these days (Pittsburgh Post-Gazzette, 2006). Digital marketing defined by Jobber, 2007: The application of digital technologies that form channels to market (the Internet, mobile communications, interactive television and wireless) to achieve corporate goal through meeting and exceeding customer need better than the competition. Digital marketing is almost completely missing from the game, it is only limited to website. Network theory studies relationships of all sorts, whether between people, animals or things. Social network analysis is an overlapping tool for learning about patterns that develop within social networks and how they influence behaviour. Digital marketing channels such as Facebook, Twitter, Foursquare and Instagram are useful in this reg ard, as they allow marketers to listen to what consumers are saying, and they allow marketers to leverage the power of influential users to spread messages throughout their networks (Harvard Business Review, 2006.). Generational marketing theory holds that consumers born of the same generation defined as a 20-year period have common attitudes and behaviours because of shared experiences that influenced their childhoods and shaped their views of the world. The relevance of generational theory to digital marketing is primarily in the ways in which each generation communicates and the online places where marketers can reach them (Zickuhr, 2010.). The customer research in the game is only limited to where the customers heard about but nothing who they are (age, gender, education, etc.). All in all the game had good opportunities in traditional marketing channels like direct marketing and advertisement but digital marketing part is really limited which makes it less realistic. Operations Efficient operations management is a key element to make a company successful. Without supply network a company cannot exist. A supply network perspective means setting an operation in the context of all the other operations with which it interact some of which are its suppliers and its customers. Materials, parts, other information, ideas and network of customer-supplier relationships formed by all these operations (Slack, Chambers, Johnston, 2004.). The supply network view can also help in decision making about the design. The design activity in operations has one overriding objective: to provide products, services and processes which will satisfy the operations customers. During the game our company used Just in time method for the production because if there was more order then our organisation was able to produce then we contracted some out when it was financially possible. Furthermore, in the meanwhile of last year in the game, all of our production was contracted out because t he four employees werent enough to build the product and to handle other task that were essential to run the company at the same time. High dependency theory is one of the explanation of the Just in Time approach to operations management. With high inventories insulating each stage in the production process, the dependency of the stages on one another was low. Take away the inventory and heir mutual dependency increases. The Just in Time practice of empowering shopfloor staff makes the organisation dependent on their actions (Slack, Chambers, Johnston, 2004.). However, this theory perfectly suits with SimVenture, thus it is realistically show the opportunities and limitations of Just in Time delivery and production because in the first year when financially it was not a possibility to contract out some of the production we bumped into some limitations according to the Just in Time manufacture technique. Finance All investments carry with them some degree of risk. In the financial world, individuals, professional money managers, financial institutions, and many others encounter and must deal with risk. Investors can either accept or try to mitigate the risk in investment decision-making (Baker Filbeck, 2015.). However, the game is limited to only two choice of grants and family and bank loans. Decision parameters are: amount, period, interest rate. The game also offers an opportunity to set bank overdraft which can be really useful especially in the beginning of the game when the company has to buy the products component and has to wait until the clients paying. The payback period can be up to 3 months. According to Deakins and Freel (2009) our companys stage of finance is at young stage, due to we paid back our only  £3000 loan from friends and family, although the company is owed 100% by the founders. Business angels capital, internet crowd funding Michael Jensen and William Meckling, in ‘Theory of the firm: management behavior, agency costs and ownership structure’ (1976), note that ‘agency costs arise in any situation involving cooperative effort’ and that, as the firm is essentially ‘a nexus for a set of contracting relationships among individuals’, agency problems are endemic to it. Their analysis focuses on how agency problems can help to explain such questions as: The degree to which a firm is financed by debt or equity; Why firms in some industries are usually owner-operated; Why firms would voluntarily supply shareholders and lenders with accounting reports and have them independently audited. The last point is of most interest for our purposes. Essentially, firms will voluntarily provide shareholders and lenders with independently audited accounting reports because this reduces the monitoring costs associated with contractual relationships with these parties. In the game there is opportunity to make the finance reports in house or to ask an agency to do it for extra costs per each months. Setting up the right price for the product is a key element for running a successful company. Our gross profit per unit is 43% of the whole price which is around average in this industry (Stefan, 2015.). Organisation and growth SimVenture is a game which is run on a managerialist philosophy not an enterprising one (Grant, 2015.). Theories of the small business life cycle have been heavily criticised in recent years for being reductionist and ‘speculatively normative’, relying on formalistic, deductive approaches rather than inductive heuristic methods (Gibb and Davies, 1990). In particular, it is the ‘deterministic assumption that all firms grow through a series of predictable series of preordained stages’ (Merz et al, 1994; p49). Small business growth is characterised by a number of predictable, discrete and consistent stages (Churchill and Lewis, 1983; Hanks et al., 1994; Kazanjian, 1988; Steinmetz, 1969). These stages are sequential in nature and occur as a hierarchical progression not easily reversed (Dodge and Robbins, 1992; Quinn and Cameron, 1983). An important aspect of theorising on the organisational life cycle is that many stage models of small business growth can be con ceptualised as ‘metamorphosis’ models (dAmboise and Muldowney, 1988; Kazanjian, 1988), where the fundamental transition from one stage of growth to another requires considerable change. However, in SimVenture when the firm moved to a bigger office and purchased new equipment for the company the efficiency of the company have been developed to a higher level that also meant that the company is growing. The life cycle literature emphasises that such periodic crises have an important role to play in the development of both the organisation and the individual. (Dodge and Robbins, 1992.). Hiring more employees and train them to be professional in different business fields is also a great method to rise the organisation to a higher level. Upon interpretation, it seems that entrepreneurs have to develop new behaviours and learn to think in radically different ways as a result of managing developmental crises (Greiner, 1972). As Greiner (1972) states, ‘these periods of te nsion provide the pressure, ideas, and awareness that afford a platform for change and the introduction of new practices’ . From this viewpoint, a key assumption behind life cycle theorising is that for a small business to grow, the owner-manager must adapt and modify their perceptions and actions as a result of these discontinuous events in order to facilitate organisational growth. For instance, in the game when the company was financially able to advertise not only in printed media but use the more expensive although more efficient TV and Radio as a marketing channel, the number of orders rising exponentially. That caused profit and sales growth which helped to increment the firm to a higher level as it displayed in the Figure 1.1 below. Figure 1.1 Even though such statements indicate a fundamental process of personal learning and development on behalf of the owner-manager, most life cycle theorists do not address this issue in any significant depth. On the other hand, there are opportunities for training and learning for the owner as well, and it is also developing the skills during the game. The important point to draw from this significant recognition is that learning to become an effective small business owner is not always simple, or inevitable for that matter (Burns and Harrison, 1989). Leadership Entrepreneurs and small business owners are very different because entrepreneurship can be distinguished from small business ownership by a venture strategy oriented toward growth and innovation (Grant, 2015.). Using Team Role theory the word ‘shape’ indicates to us ‘shaper’, whilst the word ‘vision’ implies ‘plant’. Looking at leadership using Handy’s definition is interesting for vision is certainly important to leadership, but does it have to be unique to an individual? Where it is unique to an individual with a drive to enact it such as a ‘Shaper’, strong Solo leadership is likely to prevail. Vision alternatively may be ‘borrowed’ by a ‘Shaper’ who treats it as a product of the self and similarly will adopt a Solo leadership style. Many organisations have rewarded Solo leadership behaviour by promoting individuals to management and leadership positions, for such individuals have met past organisational needs (Handy, 1992.).

Music Copyright Infringement Essay -- Napster Laws Essays

Music Copyright Infringement MP3 is an audio format that allows users to compress and send music files easily over the Internet. The major problem with this music sharing is that most of the files are pirated, which has caused a stir in the music industry. Music companies and music artists have been complaining about how their music is being stolen and therefore lowering their album sales. The major blame has been put on Napster and other file sharing software available on the Internet. Napster was a music sharing software that was shut down because of copying and distributing unauthorized MP3 files that violated the United States and foreign copyright laws. One of the major reasons why Napster was shutdown is because of Lars Ulrich, the drummer for the band Metallica. Lars Ulrich complained about Napster and how his music was being shared illegally on the Internet. To stop this Lars filed a complaint against Napster and then personally presented Napster with the names of thousands of Napster users who have allegedly been trading the band’s songs online without permission. This created a major problem for Napster as this was brought up to the United States Supreme Court. Napster argued in court that music is for sharing and all that Napster does is give people the opportunity to talk about what music they like what music they want to trade. The RIAA argued that sharing files over the Internet is illegal because the files are stolen and not copyrigh ted. Evidently Napster lost the court battle and therefore was forced to shutdown causing millions of users to find another way to share music files over the Internet. Shutting down of Napster caused a major race for who would be the next major softwa... ...iles. In the end music industries fear that people will inevitably stop buying CD’s causing the industry to be out of business. It is trying to do all that it can to keep the music industry going strong by going to courts and filing lawsuits against piracy. But as technology improves and more and more people are learning how to download and burn their own CD’s, this fight against piracy will almost be impossible. The decrease in sale has been very noticeable and it will only continue to fall. It seems like the only way to stop illegal file sharing is to shut down the internet. But the chances of that happening are not good therefore the music industry has their work cut out for them. Click Here For Some Links: http://newsfactor.com/perl/story/4704.html http://news.com.com/2100-1023-252862.html?legacy=cnet http://www.napstermp3.com/news.htm

The Algerian Civil War 1992-2002 :: essays research papers fc

â€Å"Thus, what motivates men to slay the enemy is anger,† Sun Tzu says in The Art of War. The conflict between Algerian Islamic fundamentalists and the Algerian military backed government is rooted in anger. The conflict, which began as skirmishes between government forces and Islamic fundamentalists, has taken on the proportions of a civil war as fundamentalists carried out kidnappings, assassinations and other forms of civil disturbance. The government has tried pacifying the Muslims by including Islamic leaders in the government, but extreme violence committed by both parties in the conflict has made a peaceful solution difficult to achieve. This violence has claimed the lives of an estimated 100,000 people in the years between 1990 and 2002. The Roots of Anger The clash between the fundamentalists and the military government stems from Algeria’s experimentation with political liberalization. The attempt to create more points of view and more political parties in the government has backfired horrendously. The violence of modern day Algeria stems from the failure of mild democratization in the North African country. Following nomination by the National Liberation Front (FLN) party, Chadli Bendjedid was elected President in 1979 and re-elected in 1984 and 1988. The National Liberation Front ruled as a virtual one-party regime until the political system was reformed in 1989. Antigovernment sentiment stemming from corruption, housing shortages, unemployment, and other severe economic and social problems boosted the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) despite the party’s quite public commitment to theocratic rule under Islamic law. This seemingly innocuous act was actually quite revolutionary. For the first time, an Arab country had authorized the creation of a political party that had made the creation of an Islamic republic its main goal . A new constitution was adopted in 1989 that allowed the formation of political parties other than the FLN. It also removed the armed forces, which had run the government since the days of the 1980s, from a designated role in the operation of the government. Between 1989 and 1990, forty-four new political parties emerged, many with distinct social agendas. These agendas included human rights, independent women organizations and other cultural movements . Among the scores of parties that sprang up under the new constitution, the militant Islamic Salvation Front was the most successful, winning more than 50% of all votes cast in elections in 1990 as well as in the first stage of national elections held in December 1991.

Requirements for Success in an Industry and the Attributes of Successfu

Requirements for Success in an Industry and the Attributes of Successful Leaders In terms of hospitality, leadership is defined as: leading is the process by which a person with vision is able to influence the activities and outcomes of others in a desired way (Walker 543). David P. Norton from Decision Point, Inc says, â€Å"Leadership-the availability of qualified leaders at all levels to mobilize the organization toward its strategy.† Both of these definitions are correct depending on your perception of the word. Leadership has many complexities which result in different types of leadership, individual perceptions of it and many definitions. The hospitality industry finds that leadership is not only a wonderful quality to have, but also a very important tool in managing and running an organization. Leaders are very important and carry with them certain traits that contribute to their success. To leave an impact that many people care about and remember you by is achieved through being a good leader as well as a manger because leadership is pa rt of managing. As a result of the complexities of leadership, there are three types: transactional, situational and transformational leadership. Transactional leadership is viewed as a process by which a leader is able to bring about desired actions from others by using certain behaviors, rewards, or incentives (Walker 543). Basically saying do this for that. The leader promises to exchange something an employee might desire for a task they do for the leader, the coming together of a leader, follower, and situation. For example, the leader might ask that you as a follower achieve certain goals for a bonus. A second type of leadership is situational which ... ... 2004. Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Guidelines During one of my food service classes we were to come up with HACCP guidelines for a food. This allowed me to analyze and critique the entire procedure from the point food is received till it is prepared. I learned how important it is to pay attention to the little things involved with food preparation to the obvious. Meal Planning Project This project was done my sophomore year in college. It was a very time consuming project that was challenging and well worth it. The meal planning project gave me a chance to plan a menu for a full day that meets the recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines, the Food Guide Pyramid and the Recommended Dietary Allowances for an individual of your age and sex. The project limited me again with a budget of $4.00 total for the day.

Why Volunteer

Why Volunteer? Have you ever thought about volunteering? If you're not booked for the weekend, try volunteering at your favorite charity. You might like it! People who volunteer tend to be more successful in life. With this in mind, you may want to consider volunteering your time at a charitable organization. You would be completing tasks that are not assigned to people specifically, learning important life skills, and at the same time, increasing your health. Yes, you heard it right. Volunteering does help your health. As you probably know, not all tasks in the world are assigned to people.Take trash pickup for example. If nobody picked up the trash on the side of the road, it would stay there forever and definitely cause pollution. Have you ever noticed the â€Å"Adopt a highway/' signs by the road? Well, those organizations who adopt the Highways are all run by volunteers. Doesn't it feel good to do something without getting paid? You may find volunteering can be contagious. Thin k about it; if I were to walk on the beach and pick up trash, by standers may see me and begin to pick up trash as well. Before you know it, the beach is pretty clean. So, look around.See what is needed in your community, and consider volunteering to do it. A quote by Anne Frank states, â€Å"You make a living by what you get. You make a life by what you give. † What does this mean to you? Most of the time, volunteer work will help you learn important life skills. During middle school, you certainly will get a ton of projects. Do you have a habit of putting them off until the last minute? If so, you need to learn time management. Volunteering can teach you that. However, be careful not to et your volunteer hours interfere with your other responsibilities such as homework or sports.Also, volunteering can teach you communication skills. You would become more comfortable talking to different kinds of people. You may even discover hidden talents. According to the University of Ar kansas, important life skills are learned by volunteering. That is a fact! Yes, I know volunteering takes up a lot of time, but you are helping your health. According to Make a Difference Day Survey, CM, nearly half of all volunteers (47%) say volunteering has improved their physical health and tiniest. Many volunteers state they have been affected when they volunteer.They said it helps your mental health. Studies have shown 18-24 year olds have drunken less alcohol since volunteering. Volunteering also helps reduce stress. Depression is a sign of loneliness, but when you volunteer, it combats that and you may even meet a friend there. Some health benefits due to volunteering are fewer risks of heart attacks and lower stress levels. Don't you want to help your health? A quote by Ghanaian says, â€Å"The best way to find yourself, is to lose yourself in he service of others. Volunteering not only gives you a good feeling about yourself, it helps you learn more about your community. Helping your health, doing tasks that are not assigned, and learning important life skills are all things you can achieve while volunteering. If you don't like to get dirty cooking or cleaning, try volunteering at a bake sale. Without a doubt, you will get to see the joy in children's faces when they get a messy, chocolate cupcake. Be sure to hand them a napkin! That is why you need to step up and volunteer today.

Memory Boy Essay Essay

The agree that I strike to read this 9 week full point is c each(prenominal)ed Memory by Will Weaver. The book is based on the run shorts of a family of 4 deal Miles, Sarah, and their two parents. Memory son starts out in the Mid wolfram after a mountain position in Washington erupts and spews ash what seems billions of feet up, and over the unblemished United Sates like a blanket. The ash is so thick that race have to wear dust masks away(p) to vitiate the risk of breathing it in. Miles and his family at long last decide to convey the town that they live in to head northwest.Since the ash is so heavy they cant sire a car because those are restricted, and people can only use them on certain days to avoid the trouble of pollution. So Miles assembles a new vehicle that he calls the Princess. It is a mix mingled with a bicycle and a gravy boat that they must pilot by each peddling, or when there is enough void they have a sail from a boat to put up. They decide to leave under the curtain of night to avoid beingness detected by oppositewise people who would want to take their vehicle from them.As they make their way matrimony they must face encounters with many obstacles such(prenominal) as road blocks, drawits, hunger, the government, nature, each other, and other hazards. In between telling us about theyre adventure north, Miles, who is the master(prenominal) character tells us the even offts leading up to their departure, starting with the day that the eruption happened. The allegory starts out a peaceful journeying by the family but they soon gip that their trip exit not be easy and they must work unneurotic to survive.Miles is our main character and we watch all the events happen through his point of view. He would be a junior in high school if they still in truth went to school. Miles is a smart individual who enjoys doing the telephone line of a mechanic. He built the Princess by himself and is the only one who is about to arrive and maintain it throughout the book. He takes a strong leadership role even his parents look to him to solve the solutions. When the outlet erupted he was only in the 9th bod.So either other chapter he will flashback to his 9th grade year to tell us a story about after the volcano erupted. He often compares his life directly to that of his 9th grade year, and how he would have through with(p) things different. He used to be offensive and would often act out in school to seek attention. He will explain to us how some of the events he tells us about have changed him. Miles sis Sarah is a few years young than he is. She is a saturnine and diseased girl the type that is into vampire, dark music, and dark literature.But even though she seems oaf on the outside, but she is actually scantily hiding how scared she has been throughout this entire ordeal. She secretly looks up to miles even though she would never say so to him. She doesnt like her father very lots because he was continuously away when she was a child. Miless father was a kip down musician in a band before the eruption. He was of all time on the road with his band, so he wasnt around much when Miles and Sarah were growing up.Although he seems quite docile at the lineage of the book we soon learn that he is actually quite the leader, and when Miles gets overwhelmed his father is always there to take the lead for awhile. Miless mother was the main caretaker of the children so she was always around. At the beginning of the book she unplowed the family together as a unit, they referred to her as being. The children see their mother as being helpless most of the time. It isnt until later on in the book that she really blooms as a character, and becomes a very effective asset to the group.

Basic Ecclesial Community Essay

The comparable stop be state of the various theologies of tone ending. Although in match teensy-weensy or in the buff(prenominal)wise vers deli truly boyianity,ion they may non dovetail exactly with the theological frontiers of Puebla, liberation theologies be a subject matterful and authoritative expressive style to draw near and understand BECs. WHAT ARE THE staple fiber ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES? For the sake of precision, let me keep back kick the bucket what BEC elbow room in the condition of this bind. The currently so-c on the cordial united elementary Communities, fundamental saviorian Communities, Grass grow christian Communities, oasic Ecclesial Communities in incompatible procedures of the founding sh atomic number 18 well-nigh crude land and primordial features.However, at the pose level of ecclesiological ken as it is mirrored in the specialised theological literature, we send packing b arg however talk near the current phenomenon o f BECs in a atomic number 18nawide, univocal path. They ar a diversified literality from which we can move an analogical concept. They offer a certain con melodyity in their diversity. Even in spite of appearance a a great deal homogeneous scenario much(prenominal)(prenominal) as Latin America, there argon mugificant differences in the midst of the BECs in Brazil, in Peru, in El Salvador, or Nicaragua, for instance, which pr counterbalancet us from talking of them with pop out merely embark onicular propositionation.To write on the BECs in a studious fashion, therefore, we need a c over point of annexe. Here this give be the BECs in the Roman Catholic per operation building in Brazil. From such(prenominal) a special(prenominal) point of reference it is affirmable then to relate to stark naked(prenominal) analogical cases. I do non pretend to give a hold in-cut definition or even a description of the Brazilian BECs. This would deprive them of virtuo so of their fundamental traits, namely, flexibility, uncloudedness to change and to reverse patterns, something which is genuinely a lot liais aced to real liveness. Let me spring hard- centre of attention some of their study characteristics. introductory, they argon communities. They be attempt to set a pattern of 601 602 theological STUDIES Christian sustenance which is deliberately in line of reasoning with the personistic, self-interested, and competitory speak to to ordinary vitality so inherent in the westwardern, modern-contemporary market-gardening. As a result of their consider unfolding evolution in the know 25 pertinacious duration or so, BECs in Brazil im set out been aiming at nourishment the 2 decoroustys of confabulation and federation. By stres go againstg conversation, the BECs compulsion to live organized religion non as a privatized that as a shared, real experience which is mutu on the wholey nurtured and stand outed.Such a plentiful level in assurance share-out is at the roots of an attempt to improve inter individualised relationships inwardly the partnership. This then makes possible the balance of date especi tout ensembley in the decision-making knead, in contrast with a preferably go crosswiseive attitude of the assuranceful or a too vertical orientation in employment agent or control by the clergy or by the laity. Secondly, the BECs are ecclesial. The catalysts of this ecclesiality in the Brazilian BECs overhear been the unity in and of religion and the linkage to the institutional perform.Even when BECs are globally oriented, experience has proven that the sharing of a specific, common faith was a important element for fostering the internal harvesting of the partnership. This is peculiarly important because of the paramount significance of the devise of deity and scriptural-prayer sharing in BECs animation. By linking themselves to the institutional church, BECs want to reverse the confrontational and/or hostile approach to the hierarchy that used to be a certification of Basic Communities in the sixties, especially in Italy and France or in the so- fore go acrossed underground church in the United States.This does non mean that the BECs moldiness be start outed by a clerical initiative, although umteen contrive thence been. It means, though, that however seedated, the BECs wait on for recognition and support by the pastors or by the bishops, even when enjoying a fair amount of internal impropriety. Thirdly, BECs are canonic (de base). Being preponderantly a gathering of supple temporal masses, they are said to be at the base of the church, from an ecclesiastic point of follow, as associate to the hierarchical perform structure. Moreover, in Brazil and in m whatever Third World countries, the BECs are at the base of society as well.In situation, in hell on earthuately of the thousands and thousands of BEC members are pitif ul. This is non an exclusive option neerthe s elucidation(prenominal) an understandable fact. The little looking at in a stronger manner the need for friendship, for mutual support. They are light sophisticated in shaping their friendly relationships because they break slight(prenominal) to lose. They are much open to participation because to a greater extent pressed by common needs. Finally, they are to a greater extent sensitive to the leave because they hear their personal and societal needs. then they hardly collect things for allow or as if de rund.This opens their police van to faith, which is part of the payeconomy of salvation and liberation. Moreover, universe at the base makes staple ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 603 it easier for BECs to link faith and real, everday demeanor. On the grounds of the gospel demands, they realize the need for the trans fundamental impartiality of a society whose disposal is in itself un vertical in m some(prenominal) aspect s and rattling much the source of their profess meagerness. olibanum faith is not locked in the mind and even little at bottom the private, individual horizon. Faith is a driving factor of personal change and societal transformation.In an earlier stage the BECs in Brazil were theme of as a style to improve the feel of parishes. Progressively it became clear that such a standard of mastication and participation, such a quality of interpersonal relations, were not possible in a big group or at a highly developed level of societal presidential term. Without lo hellg the linkage to the parishes, BECs figure within each parish, keeping their spontaneity and flexibility. instantly there is no pretense of making of a parish a alliance in the harm of BECs.This would hardly be possible in sociological terms. The vitality of a parish, however, can be significantly ameliorate by the presence of many BECs that gather among 20 and 50 throng in general and can occasionally interact for common purposes within the parish. For historical and sociological reasons, Brazil has been a drop chroni countery short of priests (a position that is starting to pout elsewhere too). In previous times community would confine their active church life to the weekly and meagre presence of the official minister.With BECs the growing cognisance of the diversity of vocations and of their respective function in the perform led them to consider the priest as a part of the BEC and not above it. In his absence, however, the friendship goes on in its ordinary life, be it at the level of internal church affairs (prayer and biblical groups, prep for the ordinances, attention to the sick, renewal and ongoing formation programs, and so on), be it in the field of concrete commitments to carry through in the social and political realm.golf links to the parish or the diocese are kept, of course, and they re important the main source in the preparation of written material for some(prenominal)(prenominal) construes (biblical papers, liturgy of the word, etc. ). solely life does not rest upon the initiative of the clergy and even slight on the need for its constant involvement or needful approval. This leads to a growing decentralization of church life which, however, fits within the parameters of a broad and all-inclusive intendning by the parishes, the dioceses, and even a unquestionablely active and wellorganized Bishops Conference at a topic level or in each iodine of its 15 regions in the country.The scarcely elaboration of this name leave behind provide the reader with more finespun information on what BECs mean in this precise context. It is important to bear in mind that victorious Brazil as a case prove for methodological reasons should not gaming out to be an exclusive or narrowing focus on. Having a specific point of reference economic aids us to gain a context 604 theological STUDIES for thinking, to be precise on w hat we are talking round, and to make possible a concrete comparative degree approach to our own ecclesial situation or situation. BEC A WAY OF BEING churchThe growing literature on BECs has accustomed us to think of them mainly, if not exclusively, in terms of Latin American ecclesiology and genius of the postulates of this ecclesiology is that the BECs are not alone a movement or association in the church overhaul hardly rather a way of be church. I start from this position, which I myself share, and in this article I would like to run into at the issue from a diverse angle. It may help to broaden ecclesiological perception vis-a-vis our BECs, as well as their scope and significance for the church building as a whole.If indeed the BECs are a way of being church building, then they, like the church function, can be read and interpreted by manifest ecclesiologies. The reading will be more or less adequate in a stipulation case, especially when it has to do not so much with a more or less nobble concept of the church but rather with its concrete contour in a precondition topical anaesthetic area the Brazilian church, for example. I intend in this article to link up the BECs with several major ecclesiologies of European-American extraction in the last 30 years or so. Those ecclesiologies were not thought out in terms of BECs, so the linkup may serve deuce purposes.First, on the tush of premises that are not just Latin American, it will gybe out the proposition that BECs are truly a way of being church dish out. Second, it will show that such ecclesiologies can be enriched and opened to new horizons in the light of BECs. Let me mention two further points. First, we clearly take a shit a wide and varied multiplicity of ecclesiological standpoints. Each one, taken individually, brings out the voluminosity of the aspect it highlights, while at the kindred time leaving other possible ratios in necessitous silence.The very pluralit y of ecclesiologies reveals the in baron of any given one to exhaust the mystery of the perform. Understanding the church building, and BECs as a mode of em automobile trunking the church aid, will always implicate the meeting and linking up of various ecclesiological intuitions. It can never be a linkup with one exclusively. Indeed, in principle it should embrace them all, though of course with differing tones and stresses. My turn point has to do with the present level of ecclesiological apprisedness, in which difference of focus is not due simply to difference in the aspect treated.It alike depends on the historical frame of reference that serves as the setting for the reflection fulfill. Theology carried on in the First World or exalt by it has been less explicit about that context, but it nevertheless bears the attach of it. For Third World theology in general, BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 605 and Latin American theology specifically, that frame of reference is ines capable, clearly putting its mark on theological method and its final product. This article may help us to suck that these ways of doing theology are not mutually exclusive.By the kindred token, the church service, reflecting advisedly on the mystery that it is, can derive gain ground from this plurality. It can again take up the puzzle of its unity on the basis of presuppositions that do not rest upon uniformity in its act of theological reflection. The BECs may serve here as a focus and means for verifying this proposition. Among possible methodological options, I would like to netherworldgle out ternion that are embodied in work of comparative ecclesiology.The get-go identifies the ecclesiological billet, organizing the thought of each author virtually a dominant tendency in his whole kit and caboodle this was the approach used by Batista Mondin. 1 The randomness defines a theoretical frame at the start and then uses it to compare distinct ecclesiologies, authors, or schools such was the approach used by Alvaro Quiroz Magana in his thesis. 2 The third inductively works out ecclesiological sticks on the basis of various authors, suggesting the viability and even necessity of using different lessons to articulate an ecclesiology that has been the approach of Avery change in several works. Since it does not focus mainly on authors as Mondin does, or anticipate any theoretical storage-battery grid as does Quiroz Magana, Dulles method lends itself lift out to my target here. I want to verify whether and how BECs bear the brain marks of the church building that have been underscored in late(a) ecclesiologies outside Latin America, and how BECs can amplify and fell light on the content of those ecclesiologies in a different way. Taking my inspiration from Dulles method, then, I will try to expand the content of his depth psychology in ModeL of the church building by counsel specifically on BECs.In his later work, A church building To Believ e in, Dulles really ends up proposing a sixth assume (the church as a confederation of disciples), but I shall not consider that good example specifically here. Its syntheticintegrative character is less adequate to my analytic-comparative purpose here. In Models of the perform Dulles proposes the proximo(a) ecclesiological 1 Batista Mondin, Le nuove ecclesiologie Un surmise attuale della Chiesa (Rome Paoline, 1980). 2 Alvaro Quiroz Magana, Eclesiologia en la teologia de la liberacion (Salamanca Sigueme, 1983). Avery Dulles, Models of the church A Critical Assessment of the perform in whole Its Aspects (Garden City, N. Y. Doubleday, 1974) A church building To Believe in (New York Crossroad, 1982). 606 theological STUDIES models Church as institution, chew, rite, herald, and servant. I shall briefly present the fundamentals of each model, reflecting on the relationship of BECs to the model in question. Church As Institution This is the model to which we have been tralati tiously accustomed.It solidified over the centuries, and we were evangelized and theologically educated in it until the 1950s. Its main campaign lies in understanding the Church as a society, indeed as a perfect society. Its profound Christology views Christ as prophet, priest, and king, with the tercefold function of teaching, sanctifying, and ruling. That rush is carried out by virtue of the power which Christ real from immortal, and which he confers on those who in fact suffer authority and jurisdictional power in the Church the pope, bishops, and priests. olibanum the ecclesiological accent is on the organization and dispensation of power, hence on the juridical dimension. This stress shows up on the three syllabuses of doctrine, sacrament, and administration, which are explicitly linked up with their divine origin. The logical result is the excessive growth in the Church of the clerical and institutional dimension and the relative atrophy of the charismatic element as well as of the significance of the hoi polloi of immortal, particularly the laity.Proper membership in the Church is specify as credence of the same doctrine, confabulation in the same sacraments, and obedient subjection to the same pastorsall that being visibly verified. Obviously the relationship of this look-alike to EECs is remote, by virtue of the characteristics of both(prenominal) the model and BECs. The predominantly vertical conception of power, the resultant structural organization, and the primacy and hegemony accorded to clerical initiative and activity represent something very different from what BECs are really castking andfleshingout in their way of being and animateness the mankind of the Church.By the same token, however, BECs in Brazil, as I said, do contrast with basic communities that have switch offn in the First World, particularly with those that arose in the 1960s. Brazilian BECs al close to always arise by means of the initiative of the hierarc hy and are carry on by their support. Working alongside lay unsophisticated agents, priests and phantasmal overly provide inspiration and motivation. Bishops and priests manipulation jurisdictional power over Brazilian BECs, and the latter(prenominal)(prenominal) recognize and accept this because they consciously pretend themselves as an integral part of the institutional life of the Church as a whole. therefore Brazilian BECs are not resistant to the Church as institution, they do not pose an alternative to it, nor do they absolutize their own way of being Church. Instead they give away themselves as a vital part of the Church, without which they would have no meaning. BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 607 Taking all these factors into account, we can deal that, from an analytical point of view, the Church-as-institution model hardly serves as the dominant ecclesiological inspiration or perspective in the rise of BECs and their existing working.Church As solemnity The Church exi sts in Christ as a sacrament or sign and an instrument of intimate union with immortal and of the unity of the whole man race (Lumen gentium, no. 1). With these intelligence agencys Vatican II summarily bandes and ratifies a theme that was much in picture in the Church Fathers (Cyprian and Augustine) and in the age of academism (Thomas Aquinas). Its elaboration in terms of a more general ecclesiological perspective, however, is fairly recent. This newer perspective views the Church as a sacrament.One felicitous effort of this descriptor was by Otto Semmelroth, and his work inspired many others. 4 Henri de Lubac as well make a significant piece to this approach by using patristic and chivalrous sources. 5 He linked up two dimensions the Christologicalfor us Christ is the sacrament of paragon and the ecclesiologicalfor us the Church is the sacrament of Christ. All the sacraments are essentially sacraments of the Church. The sacraments derive their power of grace from the Ch urch, and with them the Church conks the sacrament it is.Here we have a linkage between the model of the Church as institution (which stresses the apparent man of the socio-ecclesiastical dimension) and the model of the Church as share-out (which stresses the socio-ecc/esiai dimension grow primordially in the inner union of faith, hope, and go to bed). In the Church-as-sacrament model the whole congregation of the faith comes in concert in all its diverse vocations and functions. That explains the fecundity of this approach, which has been explored ecclesiologically by many theologians, particularly since World War II. A sacrament is a sign of something really present, the transparent form of an infrarefiedd grace. It is an legal sign, producing or intensifying the reality it signifies. The sacraments, then, catch the grace they signify and confer the grace they contain. In tradition the sacraments have always been associated with the social dimension of the Church, not w ith the isolated individual, even though they are administered and certain by individuals. For the world being, then, the sacraments bring together Otto Semmelroth, Die Kirche als Ursakrament (Frankfurt/Main Knecht, 1953).Henri de Lubac, Catholicisme (Paris Aubier, 1948). See the following works by way of example da Vinci Boff s doctoral dissertation, Die Kirche als Sakrament im Horizont der Welterfahrung Versuch einer legalization und einer struktur-funktionalistischen Grundlegung der Kirche im Anschluss an das IL Vatikanische Konzil (Paderborn Bonifatius, 1972) Yves Congar, LEglise, sacrement universel du salut, in Cette eglise que jaime (Paris Cerf, 1968) 41-63 P. Smulders, LEglise, sacrement du salut, in G. Barauna, ed. , LEglise de Vatican II2 (Paris Cerf, 1967) 331-38. 5 6 4 08 theological STUDIES and link the visible and inconspicuous orders as well as the individual and social planes. We can sum this up by by expression that Christ is a sacrament and so is the Church. C hrist is the sign and visible presence of the invisible matinee idol, the efficacious power of salvation for the individual and the whole flock of divinity. As institution and communion, the Church is the sign and visible presence of Christ accepted by faith and lived both really and mystically by the ecclesial fellowship of interests in the unity of the same faith. Indeed, the Church is even more sacrament than sign.Through its visible actions the Church not only signifies but dynamically produces and makes visible the reality of salvation that it represents and announces. The Church, then, is a grace-happening, and not just in the sense that it effects and administers the sacraments. It is a grace-happening as well because in the life of believers, who are the Church, we see operating and unfolding faith, hope, love, freedom, justice, peace, reconciliation, and everything else that establishes gentle intercommunion and valet de chambreitys communion with theology.Now let us see how the BECs look in the light of this model, the Church as sacrament. 1. From our examination of the Church-as-institution model, there is no doubt that the BECs see themselves as Church, as part of the visible, institutional, sociological eubstance of the Church, and that they are a specific way of financial backing as such. We also find Church as sacrament in the BECs. They are it within the Church itself in so far as they better support the ecclesial range and presence of lay people, or the poor, in the Church two features less evident in the Churchs concrete structures and functions in recent centuries. put up people and poor people share a core reality. They are both of the grass-roots level, of the base lay people in the Church, poor people in the world. Consequently we get thereby a visible, ecclesial sign of Christs own kenosis, a fundamental Christological dimension (Phil 25-11), which had not piece suitable expression in the Church-as-institution model as lived in the past few centuries. This Christological tie-in, which is lived intensely in BECs, serves as an instrument of grace for bishops, priests, and religious who accept, recognize, or even share the BEC way of being Church. . The BECs have emerged from within a traditionalistic Catholicism.In Brazil that Catholicism was centered around sacramentalization little effort was put into clear-cut evangelization and explanation of the faith. twain in pedagogical intent and in actual practice, BECs put less stress on the traditional approach of sacramentalization. This is obvious to that degree as the old(a) focus on administering and receiving the sacraments signified and re corroborate the hegemony of ordained authority and power. This was characteristic of the earlier unsophisticated BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 09 approach or flowed by nature from it. In the cities it took the form of uniform administration of the sacraments. In rural areas and the interior it took the form of ra pid rid of various sacramental obligations (baptism, confirmation, marriage, penance, and communion) in a very short period, on those rare or sporadic occasions when ordained ministers of the sacraments were on hand (the Brazilian-coined tidings to say it is desobriga, literally discharge of obligation). In both cases the tenor was more individual than communitarian.Administration of the sacraments frequently took place without proper doctrinal preparation and without rightly establishing the inner dispositions required for meeting the ethical and ecclesial prerequisites for participation in the sacraments. Thus sacramentalization was not tied into a clear ecclesial sensation of the scope and significance of the sacraments. The forms of sacramental expression and preparation for them were associated mainly, indeed almost exclusively, with the ordained minister, who was and liquid is scarce and much overworked in Brazil.Through their functions and services, current BECs have be en filling in for ordained authority thus far as they can. Church as sacrament, in the terms indicated by Lumen gentium, finds expression in many ways. The overwhelming growth of sacred authority and power (the first model) had led historically to exclusive attribution of all that to the clergy. Today lay people, in BECs and other ecclesial areas, are serving as ministers to the sick and Eucharistie ministers. They are preparing individuals and communities for baptism, confirmation, and the Eucharist.And they are performing other functions for the immediate kind and Christian well-being of individuals and communities. All these activities are clear signs of the Church as sacrament and its efficacious presence, which is not restricted to the seven sacraments alone. The fundamental change is the fact that this whole complex is seen in an ecclesial context. Without denying the vocational and ministerial role and importance of the clergy, BECs have ceased to be tout ensemble depende nt on them.The ordained minister takes his place once again within a club growing increasingly aware of its diverse vocations and functions, which are the presence of grace in the world, for the lowly in particular. 3. Insofar as the seven sacraments as such are concerned, BECs cannot encompassingy realize the Church as sacrament in the anointing of the sick and two other basic points. They are promoters of reconciliation at the level of interpersonal relations between their members, but they cannot effect reconciliation as sacrament.Builders of communion as the only viable root of familiarity, their members cannot realize the wide-cut significance of the mystery of the Eucharist. These sacraments, which are an indispensable part of Christian life, are limit up with the ordained minister. 610 THEOLOGICAL STUDIES Given the current discipline of the Church and the envisioned requisites of formation and life style, there is no way of providing BECs with such ministers. BECs are mu ltiplying rapidly and sporadically in rural areas and urban peripheries.thither are not enough priests for them any quantitatively or qualitatively. By qualitatively here, I am not so much referring to the ministerial qualifications of the priest or his fulfilment of the juridical requisites for exercising his clownish ministry. I am referring to the suitable adaptation of the priestly instance to the BEC way of being Church. For the BEC has its own proper form of communion and participation, integrating various vocations into a more decentralized overall pastoral design base on subsidiarity.This is the present situation, and in the foreseeable future there does not seem to be any thought on the part of the Church as institution to give BECs, or the rest of the Church for that matter, any alternative to the present form of the sacrament of holy orders or to the prerequisites for its reception and exercise. This is a very serious problem pretending churches that are intemperate ly nurtured by the word of God and that consolidate the bonds of communion between their members by fostering ecclesial awareness.In traditional Catholicism and the desobriga paradigm, the Eucharistie question was relativized in one or other way either the ecclesial significance of the sacrament of the Eucharist was not perceived, or the pertinent law of the Church was fulfilled, not very frequently but enough to be considered satisfactory. In the living Church embodied by BECs we see, first and foremost, a cutting awareness of the structural significance of the Eucharist in the Church as sacrament. They are acutely aware of the necessity of the Eucharist, but also of the actual impossible action of their having the Eucharist with its full meaning and reality.This problem cannot be solved adequately by allowing for ejections or by occasional casuistic meter readings. It will have to be faced by the Church as part and parcel of its overall pastoral responsibility. The latter mu st take into account the concrete, diversified reality of the ecclesial body in the world as well as the salvific function of the Church as sacrament, whose core is the Eucharist. Placed at the disposal of military personnel beings, the Eucharist is meant to be the efficacious font of communion between believers, and of their communion with God in saviour Christ.Church As Herald In this model the Church is seen primarily as the bearer of the word of God. Receiving that word, it is to pass it on to human beings. Its connoteing is also a convoking, obstetrical delivery together those who hear and accept the word in faith and who are maintained in faith and union by the strength of the word. Thus the word is constitutive of the Church. BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 611 The Church is the herald of the word, however, not its ultimate addressee. The Church receives the word to announce it. Thus the word emerges as the crucial axis of an ecclesiological perspective that is kerygmatic, p recognitive, and missionary.The two preceding models sprouted on Catholic soil and are civilised there. This model, on the other hand, was nurtured by Protestant reflection. In this century it has been cultivated by Karl Barth and Rudolf Bultmann in particular. Some of its intuitions share a common subsoil with more ancient Catholic tradition, however, and they emerged again in Vatican II to find theological expression in a Catholic and ecumenical way. In the work of Barth, the Church is the living community of the living Christ. 7 God calls it into being by His grace and gives it life by means of His Word and His Spirit, with a view to His kingdom.Thus the Church is not a fixed fact, an institution, much less an objective of faith. It comes about by Gods action. It is an issuing constituted by the power of the word of God in Scripture, made real today and denote to human beings. This tickle pinked word gives rise to faith, a gift from God that is outside human control. at tha t place is no authority in the Church except the word of God, which is to be left free to call into question the Church itself. Through Gods word the Church is renewed and, above all, urged on to its mission constant annunciation of the salvific event, savior Christ, and of the advent of Gods kingdom.This is the core of Barths centre. The word and its proclamation are not meant to beef up confessional, institutional, social, or political positions, or to abet the elaboration of the Church as a society. In the work of Bultmann8 two crucial points must be considered with adherence to ecclesiology. First, there is his nonhistorical conception of the Church. The result is the absence of any solid sociological or institutional dimension for the Church, and indeed the absence of any intention in Christ himself to establish or build it. indeed the identification of the Church with a historical data point or phenomenon remains ever paradoxical. Second, for Bultmann the word of God remai ns central, along with its proclamation as call, appeal, and invitation. provided his view here is not the same as Barths. Let us look at it a bit more closely. Bultmann, more exegete than doctrinal theologian, sees the Church 7 Karl Barth, Kirchliche Dogmatik 4/3 (Munich Kaiser, 1935 and 1967). For a systematic presentation of Barths ecclesiology vis-a-vis Catholic ecclesiology, see the work of Colm OGrady publi toss out by G. Chapman in London Vol. , The Church in the Theology of Karl Barth (1968) Vol. 2, The Church in Catholic Theology Dialogue with Karl Barth (1969). 8 Rudolf Bultmann, Kirche und Lehre im Neuen Testament, in Glauben und Verstehen 1 (Tubingen Mohr, 1966) 153-87 Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Tubingen Mohr, 1948). some(prenominal) works have been ingeminated into English Faith and Understanding A Theology of the New Testament 612 THEOLOGICAL STUDIES as a Pauline creation. It is so on three levels. It is a community of worship, an eschatological community, and a community with a vocation. In the first, the word is proclaimed.In the second, God is made present in the word meaning of deliverer by human beings. In the third, the first becomes prophetic vocation, kerygma that calls for a decision. The ecclesial event emerges in this kerygmatic tenseness of rally and response that the word brings with it, always assumptive someone with credentials who proclaims it and/or a community that hears it and takes on the commitment. The Church comes to be in this faith-happening, which frees the context from any institutional, normative, or legitimating instance. The Church is actuated whenever the kerygma unleashes the summons of God and the response of human beings.There are clear differences between Barth and Bultmann. But they also have a basic affinity with regard to the significance and active role of the word in constituting the Church as a happening. These two theologians espouse the importance of the community to which the word is addre ssed. The word is the gum around which the community gathers. The response of faith given to the word by the community is what gives the latter its meaning and reason for being. Here we can see the clear difference between the Protestant and the Catholic perspective vis-a-vis this model.Vatican II stresses that the Word became human, became flesh. Christ lives on in history by with(predicate) the Church, manifesting in it his message and rescue activity but there he also shares his own being with humans. In the Catholic version the Church-as-institution model is also brought into relationship with the word. The Church as a wholeand some in it by specific functionhas the responsibility of reflexion over the proclamation and interpretation of the word. The Churchs magisterium is not above the word, as Barth claimed. It is under the word, derivation from that word its starting oint, its norm, and its nourishment. In and for the community, the magisterium is the instance of Chris ts power and authority with regard to the stanchness and continuity of his message. The community that hears and accepts it is not just called to proclaim it and bear spectator pump to it it must also represent it into real-life action on both the individual and the social levels. The word of God is central in the ecclesiological aspect of BECs. For them it is the immediate point of reference, the source of inspiration, nourishment, and discernment.Quite oftentimes it is the radical feather catalyst of community. contrary the sacraments, which are not always accessible, the word is always within their reach. But there are profound differences between the BEC focus on the word and that to be found in the ecclesiologies of Barth or Bultmann. BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 613 1. In BECs the word is received within the Church and as Church insofar as the BEC is a way of being Church, or insofar as it is located in the affectionateness of the Church as institution and united with it. This implies the permanent reality of the Church to which the word is addressed.It also implies acceptance of the magisterium, the function in the Church that watches over the interpretation of the word and our fidelity to it. 2. In BECs the word naturally is conveyed by dint of Scripture, which is read, prayed, and reflected upon but all this is done in direct relationship with life. One could put it the other way and say in BECs the everyday life of the members, the Church, and the world are read, prayed over, and reflected upon in relation to the word of God. If it is true for BECs that the Bible is the word of God, it is no less true that God also speaks to us in the language of real life.Bible and life shed light on each other for those who look to them for meaning in faith. The faith and sumuality of BECs are grounded on this foundation. 3. In BECs the symbiosis of word and life is the key to the process of evangelization. In the earlier pastoral paradigm, and particular ly in the quick discharge of sacramental obligation (desobriga), there was little space for the word. The faithful received the word in a more often than not passive way. Their faith was receptive, but it did not feel summoned to commitment and radiation.There was no urgency toward a lasting conversion, on both the individual and social level, as a radical consequence of auditory modality and assimilating the word. This sort of profound transformation (metanoia) and the proclamation of the word to others characterize the BECs insofar as they embody Church as herald, Church of the word of God. Unlike Barths view, however, this proclamation is not dissociated from the world and its problems it is in solidarity with them. Nor is it turned in on the Church and the community of believers, who are exclusively focused on an eschatological kingdom of a future sort.In BECs the word is a summons to lives being lived in the Church and already preparing the kingdom. It summons them to call in to question both the individual person and the world, in order to condition a just society that will turn the word into reality and embody the gospel project in a coherent way. 4. In BECs, then, the word is kerygmatic and prophetic, as it was for Bultmann. It is that insofar as it is the center of a community of frequent de facto non-Eucharistic worship, which lay people can celebrate without the ordained minister they lack.The word is also kerygmatic and prophetic insofar as it belongs to a community focused on the definitive kingdom. Contrary to Bultmanns position, however, this kingdom is tied to the historical Jesus, the Word made human being. Through his word and presence in the Church, this kingdom is already beginning to take 614 THEOLOGICAL STUDIES on shape in the course of history. In BECs the word is kerygmatic especially insofar as it calls for living commitment and a coherent response on both the individual and societal planes. Bultmann requires someone license to proc laim the kerygma.In BECs this accreditation is not primarily rooted in human wisdom or qualifications, though of course such factors are not control out. In BECs the crucial factor is the faith lived by the vast majority of the members in uprightness, simplicity, and poverty as they see their salvation and liberation in spirit and in truth. 5. All this is realized in BECs through the ongoing improving of interpersonal relationships, which give visibleness to ecclesial community rooted in the prior communion in faith, justice, and love. In that sense community is not just the initiative of a God who summons and brings together.It is also the persevering laborious response of human beings journeying day by day through time and facing the problems and conflicts of life. The limits and benefits of BECs vis-a-vis the word have been well brought out by Carlos Mesters, to whom they are obligated(predicate) for a notable service of the word. Officially and scholarly accredited as a minis ter to proclaim the kerygma, he knew how to listen well to the word that God continues to utter in the hearts of the lowly, opening their hearts and minds to an understanding of both God and the human being.Mesters warns us about the risk of subjectivistic interpretation, about the failure to do a judicious, historically situated reading of the text, about the danger of a selective, ideological approach that seeks only confirmation of ones own initial position. He stresses the importance of a solid exegesis that will help the common people to get beyond those problems and also answer to the questions they themselves raise. He insists on the viability of a reading that will take into account the material and material reality of the biblical folk without minify the biblical message to just that.Finally, he tries to make it possible for an urban, industrial world to get impending to the rural book that the Bible is. 9 Church As handmaiden The ecclesiological models considered abov e are markedly centripetal. They prefer to focus on the internal reality of the Church, affirming its vitality and self-sufficiency in relation to the world. The Church teaches, offers a salvific presence, issues ethical norms, and enunciates values. For the far from frank use of the Bible in BECs, see the article by Carlos Mesters in John Eagleson and Sergio Torres, eds. , The Challenge of Basic Christian Communities (Maryknoll, N.Y. Orbis, 1981). For a sample of his own ability to relate biblical exegesis to real human problems, see Carlos Mesters, God, Where Are You? Meditations on the Old Testament (Maryknoll, N. Y. Orbis, 1977). 9 BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 615 The advent of modernity and the growing indecorum exercised by the world drew it further and further away from dependence on the Church and acceptance of it. The Church, in turn, reacted by taking up a defensive, indeed often aggressive, position vis-a-vis the world. Church and world took up hard lines in fence tre nches. 10 Vatican 1 reversed this tendency.It led the Church to see the modern world as an contact with its own identity. This focus can be depict as a belatedly optimistic view of the world. Nevertheless, the Church continues to cherish the hope that it will be able to continue its mission vis-a-vis the world. That mission to the world will be one of service primarily. The important thing for the Church is not to ask into itself and attract a small group that keeps its keep from this world. Instead, it must take its rightful place in the world and then open itself up as a place for dialogue, constructive action, and liberation.Paralleling the whole conciliar shove in the Catholic Church, various theologies of secularization have taken shape in Protestant circles by stages. Their impact on the way to read world and Catholic theology was felt most keenly in the decade of the 1960s. The basically positive thrust of the process of secularization (taken as the human autonomy with r egard to the explanation of the immanent reality) clearly took an increasingly immanentist turn, often enough degenerating into an undesirable secularism (which is the negation of any a priori dimension or reality).Despite some impossible turns and developments, the Western Church has clearly taken an uncontestable stride in reformulating its own reality vis-a-vis the world. The disposition of the whole Church is one of universal service to world as such, which is now seen as one big family or indeed as the People of God. Service (diakonia) becomes the central inspiration of ecclesiology. Though very aware of its frailty and inconsistency, the Church will not retreat into itself.On the basis of its theological anthropology, it will offer the world answers that the world itself has not found, or that the world has missed and perverted in its dizzying find toward immanentism and reductionism. This focus of the Church as servant is, however, still sharply confined. It was the the ological perspective of the North and West immediately following Vatican II. Today, even in those hemispheres, it is being sharply contested, and its limitations are being recognized. It is from different angles that the BECs translate and embody the new diakonia of the Church vis-a-vis the world.In Brazil and the rest of 10 See Marcello Azevedo, Modernidade e Cristianismo (S. Paulo Loyola, 1981) Inkulturation and the Challenges of Modernity (Rome Gregorian Univ. , 1982) J. B. Libanio, A volta a grande disciplina (S. Paulo Loyola, 1983). 616 THEOLOGICAL STUDIES Latin America, there can be no naively positive view of the modern world. The achievements of perception and technology are admitted, and so is the heightened human awareness of such basic elements as human rights, individual freedom, participation in public life, recognition in principle of the equality of all human beings, and other features of modern contemporary culture.But it is impossible not to notice the gap between these theoretical ideals and their actual realization in history, not to mention the actual frustration and perversion of these ideals in many areas. Medellin and Puebla, as well as papal and episcopal postconciliar documents, emphasize the aberrations embodied in seediness, poverty, hunger, oppression, and structural stigmas that mar our reality. In such a context the poor are the ones who suffer most, along with those who are discriminated against and marginalized, crushed and ruined beyond any hope of repair.These are the people who predominantly make up the BECs. Hence this is the concrete way that the Church as BEC manifests its status as servant. In itself it again takes on and lives Christ the Servant in the mission of the suffering people and in the witness it bears in faith, even to the full embodiment of the message in martyrdom. New life is thus given to a Christological component that has long been forgotten or left buried in obscurity. Here we have a Church that serve s and fulfils itself in service to the world.It does this through the diakonia of a faith, conscious of the gift given to us in Jesus Christ. This gift is not, however, the privilege of a chosen few it is the responsibility of all. This responsibility is lived in the urge to denounce and call into question the sociostructural organization that has produced such an unjust society. It does this by identifying clear-cut forms of institutionalized violence in all their shapes. It does this by insisting on radical changes through relations of communion and participation among human beings.Moreover, in BECs the Church becomes a servant by serving the common people without replacing them in either the Church or the world in a paternalistic way. It recognizes that they too have the right to take the initiative in carrying through their own process of maturation and liberation, both religious and civil, after centuries of denial, tutelage, or marginalization. In this perspective of active ec clesial participation, BECs are a Church that eminently serves the other forms of being Church as well as the other vocations and charisms in the Church. 1 11 This model, which stresses the urgent necessity of service as a consequence of faith, spells out the specific nature of Christian faith in full consistency with the tradition of ancient Israel and with the Gospel message. Both stressed the necessity of fleshing out in reality what one believed. Faith, then, cannot be understand solely in terms of assent or conviction it must be translated into real-life action. There is a strong echo of the Gospel message (Mt 25 and Lk 1025-37) in the insistence on a theology of service as an underlying BASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 17 Church As Communion/Community The model of Church as community founded on communion is the one that emanates most directly from the explicit ecclesiology of Vatican II. It stands in marked contrast to the hegemonic model (Church as institution) that was regarded as the primary interpretation of the mystery of the Church for ten centuries as least(prenominal), and that was practically the dominant interpretation in the last five centuries. Nevertheless, the communitarian conoeption of the Church goes back to Scripture itself and was modishly upheld in the patristic era.It medals through many phases of church history with regard to the ecclesial body as a whole and with regard to specific vocations within the Church, particularly in the evolution of the religious life. Thus in its ecclesiological perspective Vatican II taps roots grounded in tradition and the Bible and rediscovers one of the most fruitful facets of ecclesial inspiration throughout church history. 12 Here the Church is the community that is established in communion with God and between human beings.It embraces and pervades the part of an unmistakably Christian praxis. The term praxis is not synonymous with practice insofar as the latter term simply means action or behavior nor is praxis the opposite of theory. Praxis is a concrete form of historical commitment and involvement, stemming from a threefold awareness that history is made in time and that it is the result of human actions stemming from concrete choices. Praxis, then, is the conscious making of history, and Christian praxis is the concrete living out of the historical dimensions of the faith.Christian praxis is the daily, long-run embodiment and direction given to the service that faith demands. See F. Taborda, Fe crista e praxis historica, Revista Eclesiastica Brasileira 41 (1981) 250-78. This notion of praxis has been much discussed by various liberation theologians, including Gustavo Gutierrez, Juan Luis Segundo, Leonardo Boff, and Jon Sobrino. For a sophisticated and lancinating examination of the complexities of modern historical reality in the industrialized nations and Latin America, see chapters 1013 of Juan Luis Segundo, Faith and Ideologies (Maryknoll, N.Y. Orbis, 1984) 249-34 0. 12 See Pier Cesare Bori, Koinonia LIdea della comunione neUeclesiologia recente e nel Nuovo Testamento (Brescia Paideia, 1972) id. , Chiesa primitiva LImmagine della comunita delle originiAtti 242-47 432-37nella storia della chiesa antica (Brescia Paideia, 1974) Yves Congar, LEglise de nonsuch Augustin a lepoque moderne (Paris Cerf, 1970) Jerome Hamer, LEglise est une communion (Paris Cerf, 1962) Emil Brunner, Das Missverstandnis der Kirche (Zurich Zwingli, 1951) id. Dogmatik 3 Die christliche Lehre von der Kirche, vom Glauben, und von der Vollendung (Zurich Zwingli, 1960). For Brunner, the Church is pure fraternal communion bearing witness to love. The antithesis between communion and institution is the core and guiding thread of his ecclesiology. In Dulles first model (Church as institution), the Church stands above the faithful, as it were it is extrinsic to them in a certain sense. In Church-as-communion ecclesiologies, the Church is the community of all the faithful living a life of communion.Bellarmine opposed institution to communion. Brunner opposes communion to institution. Hamer sees communion lived out only in the institution. BECs start from communion as experiential living in the light of faith to reflect consciously on their ecclesial participation in the Church as institution, which they would never imagine to be adequate without the living experience of communion. 618 THEOLOGICAL STUDIES People of God in the multiplicity of their gifts, vocations, services, and functions.It embraces the Church at every level, particularly in its appreciation of episcopal collegiality and local churches. It is no less open to other Christian denominations, non-Christian religions, and all human beings who genuinely search for love, truth, and justice. There have been frequent manifestations of this spirit, from the first encyclical of Paul VI (Ecclesiam suam) to the outlook underlying the basic structure of the new Code of legislation Law. It might be ass umed that all this was inspired and dictated merely by sociological imperatives. That is not the case.The People of God, the image of the Church most esteem by Vatican II, is a great community but it is so under the action of the Holy Spirit. The members of this People, who are seen in terms of equality, dignity, and freedom, receive the very same Spirit and act under that Spirit audition and proclaiming the word of God in the unity of the same faith and mission. In this model of the Church as communion/community, both Medellin and Puebla will find their common basis and their great mediation for an evangelization that is humanizing, transforming, and liberating.The BEC is indicated as the primary and proper scenario for the concrete embodiment of this communion. Sociologically, it implements a new pattern of personal and social relationships. Ecclesiologically, it is a common center for reading and interpreting life and for auditory sense the word of God, for union among those w ho believe, and for service to all through the various ministries that arise out of the needs of the community and dovetail with ito varied vocations and charisms.The BEC amalgamates and integrates the conscious, subsidiary coresponsibility of all, under the action of one and the same Spirit, into the total body of one and the same Church. Here again we come across a central element that sheds light on the whole complex. These BECs have been in fact ecclesial communities of poor people, marked by a structural poverty stronger than the poor themselves. In a glaring way it bears witness to the absence of communion and solidarity between human beings in our current societies, to the prevailing power of detriment that destroys the human being and nullifies Gods plan for humanity.Thus the BECs are a call to conversion of heart and to the re-establishment of justice in love, which will make possible communion in faith and mission. As a community that unites hearts, the BECs are no less a force for the transformation of a world that divides and crushes. They are insofar as they try to unravel to the world and the Church the reality of communion that they themselves are already trying to live as communities. The little patch of the People of God that is living in each BEC, an initial cell as Medellin puts it, is a sign andBASIC ECCLESIAL COMMUNITIES 619 sacrament of the People of God that Vatican II sees as the Church, and that it would like to project over the world as a whole. In BECs, then, the ecclesiological model of Church as communion/ community ceases to be a theoretical variable of ecclesiological analysis. It becomes the existential witness to a reality of the Church, which is growing in communion and participation to become a community.In the BECs this model is a promising prototype of the necessary, ongoing process of historical becoming that is to culminate in the eschatological kingdom, where community is to be lived in full, definitive communion. THE soteriological COMPONENT In discussing these various ecclesiological models, I mentioned several times their underlying Christological component. I do not want to end this article without also alluding briefly to the importance of the soteriological conception these models may derive from their association with BECs as a way of being Church.The mystery of the Church is intimately bound up with the mystery of Jesus Christ, and no less with the understanding of his mission. This, in turn, is reflected in the conception of the ecclesial mission. Thus ecclesiology, Christology, and soteriology shed light on one another and help to explain one another. The salvation and repurchase given to us by the Father in and through Jesus Christ (the meaning of his life and mission) is to be realized on at least three levels.They can be distinguished from one another analytically, but they are interwoven in reality. For the historical destiny of humanity must be oriented in line with its eschatolog ical destiny, in the indissoluble unity of the proclamation and realization of the kingdom, which is to be initiated here but find its ultimate ending only in the eschaton. The first level is the save and saving liberation from sin that marks the human race as a whole and the individual human person.The second level has to do with sin in terms of its interpersonal and social projections, insofar as it expresses the perversion of Gods plan as manifested in the concrete human organization of social, economic, and political realities that have been created by human beings and that affect humanity. The third level has to do with liberation from sin as the latter is incorporated into the gestation of culture and history over centuries, which in turn is often the wellspring of sin on the two other levels and vice versa.These three levels of salvation, redemption, and liberation are a replica of Gods activity with the people of Israel, hence of the history of our salvation as knowing by God. redemption, redemption, or liberation cannot be understood solely from the divine side, i. e. , as our ransom from sin through Gods initiative and His new openness to a covenant of love with human beings in and 620 THEOLOGICAL STUDIES through Jesus Christ. incomplete can it be understood solely in a directly anthropological sense that is not sufficiently existential, i. e. salvation as the fulness of human conversance and total opening up to the absolute, as a teleological orientation to the definitive, eschatological future of humanity. Salvation, redemption, and liberation must further be understood as the Pauline exigency that human beings also respond to, and ally themselves with, God and His project to liberate humanity with respect to the consequences of sin (Romans 2 and 7). Throughout history those consequences leave their mark not only on the life of the individual but also, and even more so, on the social context of the world.In the BECs we do find the soteriologi cal key of the various ecclesiological models mentioned, a key that tends to stress the first level of redemption just noted. But everything I have been manifestation about the BECs with respect to the ecclesiological dimension of these models implies a twofold emphasis in the soteriological perspective, which is paramount in the ecclesial awareness of our day. The first says that human beings are, by the saving power of Jesus Christ, an active party in carrying on the process of salvation and liberation in history.Just as they were agents in the deformation of Gods plan through their human sin, so they express the new life given to them in Jesus Christ through their real-life embodiment of the love and justice that he has re-established. It is the realization of the Word, made Salvation a biblical exigency throughout the two Testaments. A second emphasis is also affirmed in the BECs, communities of poor people. They see themselves as the primary subjects in setting in motion and trigger off this process of realizing salvation through the transformation of sins consequences.In fact, they are the real-life victims of injustice-made sin in the world in which we live. Hence it is they who can best perceive the rupture between such injustice and Gods project. To be or become poor is to perceive this from the standpoint and condition of the poor whatever our social and economic condition might be. Here is picked up the primary inspiration of Jesus own life and mission (Lk 318-21), which must necessarily be reaffirmed in the life and mission of the Church. 3 13 In a extroverted book, Basic Ecclesial Communities in Brazil, which is to be published in English by Georgetown University Press, I examine the origin and formation of Brazilian BECs, their evangelizing potential, and the rich novelty of their pastoral paradigm. I also explore them as a theological topic, and the challenges they may pose to the overall process of evangelization. A Portuguese version of the present article is being published by the Brazilian ledger Perspectiva teologica (Sept. -Dec. 1985).